Ever wonder why some kids can sit quietly and focus on reading an interesting story or a favourite puzzle, while some cannot seem to sit still for more than five seconds to concentrate on anything at all? Of course, personal interest in particular activities plays a big role in grabbing children attention and sustaining it, but this does not tell the full story.
Executive functioning (EF) determines what children pay attention to, how they process information, whether or not they abide by implicit and explicit rules within the environment and how effectively they remember salient aspects they need to accomplish various set cognitive and behavioural tasks (Ahmed et al., 2019; McDevitt & Ormrod, 2020). Executive functioning is akin to having an air traffic control system which enables one to demonstrate self-control, stay focused by disregarding irrelevant stimuli and adjust one’s strategies when necessary in order to achieve one’s goals (CDC Harvard University, 2011; McDevitt & Ormrod, 2020; Mitchell, 2014).
Since EF is critical to goal-oriented problem solving and directly influences how children learn, EF has been found to impact on their overall social, emotional and moral development as well as, to be a significant measure of school readiness and the foundation upon which children build early literacy and numeracy skills (Ahmed et al., 2019; CDCHU, 2011; Hass et al., 2014; Hughes, 2011).
What is Executive Functioning?
Although there is much debate around the construct of EF, there is a consensus around the integrative role it plays in coordinating cognitive resources to plan and accomplish set goals (Hass et al., 2014). The development of EF is often examined based on its three main aspects: working memory, inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility that are inter-related when utilised (CDC Harvard University, 2011; Miyake & Friedman, 2012).
Figure 1
3 Dimensions of Executive Functioning
Note. (Buttelmann & Karbach, 2017; CDCHU, 2011; Kovacs & Conway, 2016; Thompson, 2016).
Executive functioning is akin to having an air traffic control system which enables one to demonstrate self-control, stay focused by disregarding irrelevant stimuli and adjust one’s strategies when necessary in order to achieve one’s goals
How Executive Functioning Develops
From a very young age, children display varying levels of EF due to differences in biological, social and environmental factors. Foundational EF emerge in infancy but its full range of capacities continue to develop throughout adolescence, and varying trajectories of EF development influences children’s learning at home, in the classroom and when engaging with broader society.
Infancy (0-2)
Within the first year of life, infants typically begin to develop the working memory to remember that unseen objects are still there (i.e. object permanence) and perform two-step cause-and-effect tasks (CDCHU, 2011; Hughes, 2011).
By two years of age, infants are also capable of anticipatory looking in which they look at the location of a target before it appears (Hughes, 2011). Infants exhibit rudimentary inhibitory control in not touching forbidden objects from early on, and learn to maintain focus during very brief delays of stimuli (CDCHU, 2011). They also display emerging inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility by delaying momentarily when they perceive a barrier between themselves and a visible toy before reaching around the barrier to retrieve it (CDCHU, 2011; Hughes, 2011).
In line with Vygotsky’s social-cultural theory, evidence have been found that sensitive parent-child interactions and parental scaffolding significantly impact on infant’s executive functioning (Hughes, 2011; McDevitt & Ormrod, 2020; Thompson, 2016).
Conversely, other social and biological factors such as neglect, parental depression, unstable foster care, prenatal alcohol exposure and prematurity at birth impair the development of the prefrontal cortex of the brain, the central seat of executive functioning, which affects how infants notice, process and react to social interactions (CDCHU, 2011; Moore et al., 2017).
Due to the influence of epigenetic modifications [reversible chemical turning on and off of genes], other environmental factors such as toxic stress from poverty, trauma, and abuse, when experienced in early life can also lead to accumulative, long-term and adverse variations on higher-order executive functions, (Frias-Lasserre et al., 2018; Moore et al., 2017; Thompson, 2016).
Pre-school Years (3-6)
The age from 3 to 5 is a particularly sensitive period of dramatic growth in executive function skills proficiency that coincide with the high plasticity of brain circuits in the prefrontal brain regions which includes interconnections of the parietal cortex, anterior cingulate and hippocampus (Buttelmann & Karbach, 2017; CDCHU, 2011; Hass et al., 2014).
Figure 2
Dramatic Increase in EF Skills Proficiency in Pre-School Years
Note. Adapted from Building the brain’s “Air Traffic Control” system: How early experiences shape the development of executive function-Working paper 11 by CDC Harvard University. 2011. Copyright NIH (In Press).
In terms of working memory and cognitive flexibility, pre-schoolers develop the ability to hold on to two rules even when they are incompatible and shift their attention from one to another when problem solving (Buttelmann & Karbach, 2017; CDCHU, 2011; Hughes, 2011). Pre-schoolers also learn to quickly automate relevant responses hence increasing their working memory capacity (McDevitt & Ormrod, 2020).
As they progress through their preschool years, they learn to inhibit highly desirable responses (e.g. having a treat) and follow an arbitrary rule to demonstrate a response that runs contrary to their natural instincts (CDCHU, 2011; Hattie & Yates, 2014).
Despite the obvious biological maturation processes of the brain such as insulation of brain neurons that contribute to the development of EF at this stage, social and environmental factors still play a significant role. Again, the family’s part is paramount: level of maternal education has been linked to variations of EF in pre-schoolers and parents who practice positive behaviour support have persistent effects on pre-schoolers inhibitory control well into their elementary school years (Ahmed et al., 2019; Dishion, 2016; Hughes, 2011).
With adult guidance, pre-schoolers begin to engage in self-talk to guide their behaviour and gradually assume the “executive” action roles for themselves (CDCHU, 2011; McDevitt & Ormrod, 2020)
Another crucial factor that impact on EF development during this period is the opportunity for pre-schoolers to engage in social play where they test their newly discovered skills such as planning of games, negotiating their roles with their peers and adjusting their responses based on their peers feedback (CDCHU, 2011; Thompson, 2016).
Elementary School Years(7-12)
At this stage, children’s working memory capacity continues to expand which contribute to their processing speed (McDevitt & Ormrod, 2020). In terms of inhibitory control, they develop their ability to ignore peripheral stimuli that are irrelevant to the central stimuli that demands their focus (CDCHU, 2011). Research points to significant growth in cognitive flexibility during this period when children learn to adjust to changing rules across multiple contexts by attending to previously irrelevant aspect and perform task switching (Buttelmann & Karbach, 2017; CDCHU, 2011; Hughes, 2011)
As students transit into elementary school years, they spend a substantial amount of time in school making school environment pertinent to their cognitive development (Frias-Lasserre et al., 2018; van Lier & Deater-deckard, 2016).
There is a reciprocal effect between children’s executive functioning, and their interactions with teachers and peers .
(Dishion, 2016; Holmes et al., 2016)
Positive interactions with peers in particular have been found to contribute to children’s inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility, since the frequency of peer interactions increase in elementary school as opposed to daycare with lower teacher/student ratio and there is added pressure to perform among same-aged peers (van Lier & Deater-deckard, 2016).
Social rejection and negative pressure on the other hand takes away from the working memory needed for learning due to the need to process emotional responses and restore relationships (Holmes et al., 2016; van Lier & Deater-deckard, 2016). Good interpersonal teacher-student relationships also predicted improvement in inhibitory control particularly for girls while teacher-student conflict have an adverse impact on children’s working memory (van Lier & Deater-deckard, 2016).
Adolescence (13-18)
The adolescent years have been highlighted by longitudinal research as the second sensitive period in the growth of executive functioning when there is a structural development of brain circuitry predominantly in the prefrontal cortex as well as in the interconnections of the striatum, hippocampus and amygdala, and rapid synaptic pruning and gains in white matter (Chaku & Hoyt, 2019; Hass et al., 2014; Hughes, 2011).
Figure 3
Your Wise and Emotional Brain
Note. From 12 Executive Functions of the Brain Spotlight: Emotional Control by Sklar. 2025, (https://executivefunctioningsuccess.com/12-executive-functions-of-the-brain-spotlight-12-emotional-control/).
This results in maximisation of working memory and maturation of task maintenance capability which is linked to more efficient processing speed as a result of better interconnectivity between the prefrontal cortex and other regions of the brain (Buttelmann & Karbach, 2017; Hughes, 2011; McDevitt & Ormrod, 2020). In terms of cognitive flexibility, adolescents increasingly show greater accuracy when switching task focus, and adjusting to evolving rules (CDCHU, 2011; Hughes, 2011).
Adolescents also to analyse moral dilemmas from multiple perspectives by considering abstract values (Vera-Estay et al., 2015). A study that analyse a large and longitudinal dataset found a U-shaped trajectory of inhibitory control development during this period: decreasing during early adolescence before increasing again by age 18 with males developing inhibitory control later and more gradually than females (Chaku & Hoyt, 2019; Shulman et al., 2015).
Puberty is the main biological factor which results in variations at this stage of development. Early pubertal timing promote increase in overall executive functioning which is partially attributed a headstart in practicing complex skills due to differential perception of competence by others based on physical maturation (Chaku & Hoyt, 2019). In other words, looking more like an adult enable some teenagers to practise skills expected of adults more often.
However, this may not hold true for females as early timing has been associated with risky trajectories due to vulnerability towards sensation-seeking behaviours, related to lower inhibitory control in early adolescence (Chaku & Hoyt, 2019).
Youth exposed to stressful environments either from abuse, bullying and neglect at home and/or school, especially over long periods of time run the risk of maladaptation of their executive functioning such as heightened sensitivity to rejection and aggression (Dishion, 2016; Hughes, 2011; van Lier & Deater-deckard, 2016; Vera-Estay et al., 2015).
Executive Functioning and
Classroom Learning
In a study which employs both clinical measures and teachers’ ratings, EF during pre-school years has been found to account for the variability in student’s early mathematical performance two years later, after accounting for covariance due to general intelligence and reading achievement (Clark et al., 2010). Mathematical performance is attributed to working memory in holding on to sub-calculations during problem solving, inhibiting impulsive responses to consider tasks carefully and cognitive flexibility in applying different strategies (Ahmed et al., 2019; Clark et al., 2010).
Language sensitive measures of EF has also been found to predict reading, writing, listening comprehension and oral language learning outcomes from middle childhood to early adolescence (Berninger et al., 2017). This is significant considering the overarching role that language play in all learning domains (Owens, 2020).
EF assessed in first grade has also been significantly linked to metacognitive control (e.g. error correction, allocation of study time), which are critical learning strategies (Roebers et al., 2012).
In a large-scale longitudinal study, low inhibitory control in childhood has been significantly correlated to higher instance of early school dropout (Hattie & Yates, 2014). Working memory at age 4.5, on the other hand, predicts academic achievement ten years later (Ahmed et al., 2019).
Similarly, EF scores in early middle school predict current grade point averages (GPAs) and future GPAs up to the 9th grade in languages, mathematics, and social studies after considering co-variance due to socioeconomic status, gender and normative development over time (Samuels et al., 2016).
The process overlap theory elucidate how EF impacts on academic achievement above and beyond general cognitive ability: EF capabilities acts as bottleneck and restricts the full potential of domain specific abilities (Kovacs & Conway, 2016).
As mentioned previously, EF also has an indirect link to classroom learning through the quality of peer interactions (Holmes et al., 2016; van Lier & Deater-deckard, 2016). Although, the link has been found to weaken as children move into adolescents, it is still an important factor that warrant attention considering the important role of communication and socialisation skills on various learning domains in school, and beyond (Owens, 2019; Stagnitti & Lewis, 2015).
However, the links made between EF and academic performance need to be treated with caution; a longitudinal study reveals the lack of clear association of the EF construct in early childhood to adolescence highlighting the need for further psychometric work to refine and validate developmentally sensitive measures which capture the evolvement of EF over the human lifespan (Ahmed et al., 2019).
Differences in culture are also important to note as they mediate the link between EF and domain specific learning (Georgiou et al., 2020; Lan et al., 2011). For example, different aspects of EF may be more important than others. For example, inhibitory control may be more important for Chinese students than Canadian students in reading and numeracy due to the diverse structures of various languages; similar subjects are also taught differently in different countries (Georgiou et al., 2020).
What is undeniable is the role that executive functioning play in young people’s learning. Consideration and measured steps therefore must be taken by parents, early interventionists and educators to encourage the development of these skills alongside domain knowledge that are imparted at home and in schools.
Figure 4
Summary of Development in Executive Functioning Skills
The purpose of understanding the typical development of executive functioning skills is not to pinpoint deficits in children through observation and slap a label on them. Every child exist within a unique mix of biological and environmental factors, and deserves space and time to grow and develop these skills at his/her own pace.
It is important as parents and educators to manage our expectations of what a child can learn and demonstrate at each life stage – it is quite ridiculous to expect students in lower primary to sit quietly working on sentence construction for extended periods without sensory breaks or to expect a young teenager to maintain perfect calm in highly charged situations. Rather, this overview of executive functioning development can be used as a guide when planning interventions and learning activities to give your child or student ample practice in the skills they need to thrive in the home and school environment.
References:
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